eld/helper/eld-helper0.html

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<title>BRIEF HELPS FOR LATIN READERS</title>
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<H1>BRIEF HELPS FOR LATIN READERS.</H1>
<H2>1. The Era.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;DATES are generally given in Roman writers by the names of the consuls of the year, but if a date A.U.C. (<foreign lang="latin">anno urbis conditae</foreign>) is given, we can translate it into a date of our own era by subtracting it from 754 to find our date B.C. or by subtracting 753 from it to find our date A.D.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Thus A.U.C. 710 is B.C. 44.
</p>
<p>
&SP4;A.U.C. 762 is A.D. 9.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>2. Calendar.</H2>
<H3>THE YEAR.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;According to Caesar's reformed Calendar, introduced B.C. 45, the year consisted of 365 1/4 days. To avoid fractions, in every four years three were considered to contain 365 days and the fourth (leap-year, <foreign lang="latin">annus bissextilis</foreign>) 366, an arrangement which, with one slight modification, we still retain [1]. 
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
&SP2;[1] The true length of the solar year falls short of 365 1/4 days by 11 min. 12 sec. Hence it is found necessary to omit three days in every four centuries.
</p>
<indent val="1">

<H3>NAMES OF THE ROMAN MONTHS.</H3>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="33%">January</td><td width="33%">Ianuarius</td><td width="34%">31 days</td></tr>
<tr><td>February</td><td>Februarius</td><td>28 days (in leap year 29)</td></tr>
<tr><td>March</td><td>Martius</td><td>31 days</td></tr>
<tr><td>April</td><td>Aprilis</td><td>30 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>May</td><td>Maius</td><td>31 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><tr><td>June</td><td>Iunius</td><td>30 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>July</td><td>Quintilis [2]</td><td>31 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>August</td><td>Sextilis [2]</td><td>31 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>September</td><td>September</td><td>30 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>October</td><td>October</td><td>31 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>November</td><td>November</td><td>30 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>December</td><td>December</td><td>31 ,,</td></tr>
</table>
<p>
<indent val="2">
&SP2;[2] Quintilis was re-named Iulius in B.C. 44 in honour of Julius Caesar, and Sextilis re-named Augustus in B.C. 8, in honour of Augustus.
</p>
<indent val="1">
<p>
&SP2;N.B. All the month-names are adjectives. When they are used as substantives <foreign lang="latin">mensis</foreign> is understood.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The first day of the month was called Kalendae, the fifth Nonae, the thirteenth Idus.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;But March, July, October, May make Nones the seventh, Ides the fifteenth day.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The Latin will be, for&mdash;<br>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="60%">&#x2018;On the 1st of January,&#x2019;</td><td width="40%"><foreign lang="latin">Kalendis lanuariis</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>&#x2018;On the 5th of February,&#x2019;</td><td><foreign lang="latin">Nonis Februariis</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>&#x2018;On the 13th of February,&#x2019;</td><td><foreign lang="latin">Idibus Februariis</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>&#x2018;On the 7th of March,&#x2019;</td><td><foreign lang="latin">Nonis Martiis</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>&#x2018;On the 15th of March,&#x2019;</td><td><foreign lang="latin">Idibus Martiis</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>&#x2018;On the 5th of April,&#x2019;</td><td><foreign lang="latin">Nonis Aprilibus</foreign></td></tr>
</table><br>
and so on. 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Other dates in the month are reckoned by the number of days before the Nones or Ides of the same month; or before the Kalends of the next month, the Romans including in their calculation both the day itself and the day from which they reckoned, except in the case of the actual day before the Kalends, Nones, &c.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Thus, &#x2018;on the 4th of November&#x2019; was <foreign lang="latin">Pridie Nonas Novembres</foreign>, &#x2018;on the 12th of November,&#x2019; <foreign lang="latin">Pridie Idus Novembres</foreign>; but &#x2018;on the 9th of November&#x2019; was <foreign lang="latin">ante diem quinturn Idus Novembres</foreign> (A D. V. Id. Nov.), &#x2018;on the 29th of November&#x2019; <foreign lang="latin">ante diem tertium Kalendas Decembres</foreign> (A.D. III. Kal. Dec.).
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In February of leap-year, the 24th day (<foreign lang="latin">ante diem sextum Kalendas Martias</foreign>), was counted twice, hence the name <foreign lang="latin">bissextilis</foreign>. 
</p>

<H3>HOURS OF THE DAY.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;The day began at Sunrise and ended at Sunset. It was divided into twelve hours, which must have varied in length from about 45 minutes at the winter solstice to about 75 minutes at the summer solstice.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Only at the equinoxes would the hours be of the length of 60 minutes. 
</p>

<H3>DIVISIONS OF THE NIGHT.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;The night (from Sunset to Sunrise) was divided into four equal watches (<foreign lang="latin">Vigiliae</foreign>) named <foreign lang="latin">Prima, Secunda, Tertia,</foreign> and <foreign lang="latin">Quarta</foreign>.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>3. Weights and Measures.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;Most of the Roman weights and measures were divided like the <i>as</i>, or pound weight. 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign> was rather less than 3/4 (about .72) of an English pound avoirdupois. Hence the <foreign lang="latin">uncia</foreign>, 1/12 <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign> = nearly 1 oz. avoirdupois.
</p>

<H3>THE <i>AS</i> AND ITS DIVISIONS.</H3>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="60%"> </td><td width="20%"><foreign lang="latin">As.</foreign></td><td width="20%"><foreign lang="latin">Unciae.</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>As</td><td>1</td><td>12</td></tr>
<tr><td>Denux</td><td>11/12</td><td>11</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dextans</td><td>5/6</td><td>10</td></tr>
<tr><td>Dodrans</td><td>3/4</td><td>9</td></tr>
<tr><td>Bes</td><td>2/3</td><td>8</td></tr>
<tr><td>Septunx</td><td>7/12</td><td>7</td></tr>
<tr><td>Semis</td><td>1/2</td><td>6</td></tr>
<tr><td>Quincunx</td><td>5/12</td><td>5</td></tr>
<tr><td>Triens</td><td>1/3</td><td>4</td></tr>
<tr><td>Quadrans</td><td>1/4</td><td>3</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sextans</td><td>1/6</td><td>2</td></tr>
<tr><td>Uncia</td><td>1/12</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sescuncia</td><td>1/8</td><td>1 1/2</td></tr>
<tr><td>Semuncia</td><td>1/24</td><td>1/2</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sicilicus</td><td>1/48</td><td>1/4</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sextula</td><td>1/72</td><td>1/6</td></tr>
<tr><td>Scrupuluim</td><td>1/288</td><td>1/24</td></tr>
</table>

<H3>LINEAR MEASURE.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;Of this the <foreign lang="latin">pes</foreign> (equal to .971 of an English foot) may be regarded as the unit. <br>
&SP8;1 pes = 4 palmi = 16 digiti.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;This, however, was a technical division used by surveyors, &c.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;More commonly the <foreign lang="latin">pes</foreign> was divided into 12 <foreign lang="latin">unciae</foreign> like the <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign>.
</p>

<H3>MULTIPLES OF THE <i>PES.</i></H3>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="30%"><foreign lang="latin">Palmipes</foreign></td><td width="50%">= (1 ft.+1 palm=)</td><td width="20%">1 1/4 feet.</td></tr>
<tr><td><foreign lang="latin">Cubitus</foreign></td><td>= </td><td>1 1/2 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td><foreign lang="latin">Gradus</foreign></td><td>= </td><td>2 1/2 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td><foreign lang="latin">Passus</foreign></td><td>= 2 <foreign lang="latin">Gradus</foreign> =</td><td>5 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td><foreign lang="latin">Pertica</foreign></td><td>= </td><td>10 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td><foreign lang="latin">Actus</foreign></td><td>= </td><td>120 ,,</td></tr>
</table>

<p>
&SP2;The <foreign lang="latin">mille passus</foreign> (in plural <foreign lang="latin">millia passuum</foreign>), being 1000 <foreign lang="latin">passus</foreign>, = 5000 Roman feet = 4854 English feet or 1618 yards.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Roads were measured by miles. Sea distances by <foreign lang="latin">stadia</foreign>. 8 <foreign lang="latin">stadia</foreign> = <foreign lang="latin">mille passus</foreign>.
</p>

<H3>SQUARE MEASURE.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;A square <foreign lang="latin">pes</foreign> was called <foreign lang="latin">pes quadratus</foreign> or <foreign lang="latin">constratus</foreign>. 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;A square <foreign lang="latin">pertica</foreign> (100 square <foreign lang="latin">pedes</foreign>) was called <foreign lang="latin">scrupulum</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Two square <foreign lang="latin">actus</foreign> made a <foreign lang="latin">jugerum</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Hence the <foreign lang="latin">jugerum</foreign> contained 28,800 square <foreign lang="latin">pedes</foreign>. It might be subdivided into the same fractions as the <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign>, the <foreign lang="latin">scrupulum</foreign> (100 square <foreign lang="latin">pedes</foreign>) being obviously 1/288 of the <foreign lang="latin">jugerum</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;1 <foreign lang="latin">jugerum</foreign> = nearly 2 1/2 English roods.
</p>

<H3>MEASURES OF CAPACITY.</H3>
<H4>Liquid Measure.</H4>
<p>
Used also in Dry Measure.
<indent val="2">
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="30%">1 <foreign lang="latin">cyathus,</foreign></td><td width="30%"></td><td width="40%"></td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">acetabulum</foreign></td><td>= 1 1/2 <foreign lang="latin">cyathi,</foreign></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">quartarius</foreign></td><td>= 3 ,,</td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">hemina</foreign></td><td>= 6 ,,</td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">sextarius</foreign></td><td>= 12 ,,</td><td>= nealy 1pt.</td></tr>
</table>
<indent val="1">
</p>
<p>
Used only in Liquid Measure.
<indent val="2">
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="30%">1 <foreign lang="latin">congius</foreign></td><td width="30%">= 72 <foreign lang="latin">cyathi</foreign></td><td width="40%">= 6 <foreign lang="latin">sextarii.</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">urna</foreign></td><td>= 288 ,,</td><td>= 24 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td>1 <foreign lang="latin">amphora</foreign> or <foreign lang="latin">quadrantal</foreign></td><td>= 576 ,,</td><td>= 48 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>= nealy 5 gals. 6pts.</td><td></td></tr>
</table>
<indent val="1">
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The <foreign lang="latin">amphora</foreign> contained 1 cubic <foreign lang="latin">pes</foreign> of liquid.
</p>

<H4>Dry Measure.</H4>
<p>
&SP2;In dry measure the <foreign lang="latin">modius</foreign> (nearly 1 peck) contained 16 <foreign lang="latin">sextarii</foreign> (192 <foreign lang="latin">cyathi</foreign>). The <foreign lang="latin">semodius</foreign> was half a <foreign lang="latin">modius</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The <foreign lang="latin">sextarius</foreign> could be subdivided in the same way as the <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign>, the <foreign lang="latin">cyathus</foreign> being the <foreign lang="latin">uncia</foreign>, i. e. twelfth part.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>4. Money.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;In the earliest times Roman money was not coined but consisted of ingots of bronze (<foreign lang="latin">aes</foreign>) supposed to weigh a pound (<foreign lang="latin">as libralis</foreign>). It was always weighed on delivery (hence <foreign lang="latin">aes grave</foreign>).
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The <em>coined</em> &#x2018;as&#x2019; contained 10 <foreign lang="latin">unciae</foreign> not 12. Until B.C. 269 no metal but bronze was coined. In that year the Romans introduced silver coins, of which the chief were the <foreign lang="latin">sestertius</foreign>=2 1/2<foreign lang="latin">asses</foreign>, and the <foreign lang="latin">denarius</foreign>=10 <foreign lang="latin">asses</foreign> or 4 <foreign lang="latin">sestertii</foreign>. But the bronze <i>as</i> was at the same time reduced to 4 ounces.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Hence the sesterce was equal to the old <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign> of 10 ounces.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;As the supply of silver increased more rapidly than that of bronze, the coined <i>as</i> was more and more reduced in weight until in B.C. 217 it was fixed at one ounce. At the same time the <foreign lang="latin">sestertius</foreign> was made to be worth 4 <foreign lang="latin">asses</foreign>, the <foreign lang="latin">denarius</foreign> 16.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In B.C. 49 Caesar introduced a gold coin, the <foreign lang="latin">aureus</foreign>, and after that time the <foreign lang="latin">sestertius</foreign> was coined in brass.
</p>


<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="40%"></td><td width="30%"></td><td width="30%">&nbsp;&nbsp;&pound;&nbsp;&nbsp;<foreign lang="latin">s.</foreign>&nbsp;&nbsp;<foreign lang="latin">d.</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td>Aureus (gold)</td><td>= 100 sesterces</td><td>= 1&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;0</td></tr>
<tr><td>Denarius (silver)</td><td>= 4 ,,</td><td>= 0&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;9 3/5</td></tr>
<tr><td>Sestertius (brass)</td><td></td><td>= 0&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;2 2/5</td></tr>
<tr><td>As</td><td>= 1/4 sesterce</td><td>= 0&nbsp;&nbsp;0&nbsp;&nbsp;0 3/5</td></tr>
</table>

<H3>THE CURRENCY AND SUMS OF MONEY.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;In the last table the value of the <foreign lang="latin">aureus</foreign> is slightly under-estimated as compared with our gold, and that of the <foreign lang="latin">denarius</foreign> slightly over-estimated as compared with our silver. The proportion between the value of silver and gold was not the same at the end of the Roman Republic as it is to-day.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Nothing is here said as to the purchasing power of money in ancient Rome, which is probably an insoluble question.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Sums of money were always computed in <foreign lang="latin">sestertii</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Taking the <foreign lang="latin">aureus</foreign> as equal to &pound;1, and consequently the sesterce as equal to &pound;1/100, we get<br>
<indent val="3">
<foreign lang="latin">mille sestertii</foreign> (or <foreign lang="latin">nummi</foreign>) = 1000 <foreign lang="latin">sesterces</foreign> = &pound;10. <br>
<foreign lang="latin">duo millia sestertium</foreign> = 2000 <foreign lang="latin">sesterces</foreign> = &pound;20.<br>
<foreign lang="latin">decies</foreign>[1] <foreign lang="latin">sestertium</foreign> = 1,000,000 = &pound;10,000.<br>
<foreign lang="latin">vicies sestertium</foreign> = 2,000,000 = &pound;20,000.<br>
<foreign lang="latin">quinquagies sestertium</foreign> = 5,000,000 = &pound;50,000[2].<br>
<indent val="1">
</p>

<p>
&SP2;The symbol for &mdash;<br>
<indent val="3">
<foreign lang="latin">decem sestertii</foreign> is HSX<br>
<foreign lang="latin">quinquaginta sestertii</foreign> is HSL<br>
<foreign lang="latin">decem millia sestertium</foreign> is HS&#xE10D;<br>
<foreign lang="latin">quinquaginta millia sestertium</foreign> is HS&#xE10E;<br>
<foreign lang="latin">decies sestertium</foreign> is HS|&#xE10D;|<br>
<foreign lang="latin">quinquagies sestertium</foreign> is HS|&#xE10E;|<br>
<indent val="1">
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
&SP2;[1] With the numeral adverbs followed by the genitive plural <foreign lang="latin">sestertium</foreign> &#x2018;centena millia&#x2019; is always understood.<br>
&SP2;[2] If on the other hand we calculate from the actual amount of silver contained in the <foreign lang="latin">denarius</foreign> we get smaller results.
</p>
<indent val="1">

<H3>INTEREST.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;Before Sulla (about 80 B.C.) the interest was described as a fraction of the principal per annum, the fractions of the <foreign lang="latin">as</foreign> being employed as usual.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The usurer's year however was one of ten months. Hence to get the fraction per year of 12 months we must multiply by 12/10=6/5. The reduction to a percentage will then be simple.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Thus <foreign lang="latin">fenus unciarium</foreign> = 1/12 capital per year of 10 months, i.e. (1/12&times;12/10=)1/10 per year of 12 months = 10 per cent. Similarly, <foreign lang="latin">fenus semunciarium</foreign> = 5 per cent.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;<foreign lang="latin">Fenus ex triente</foreign> = 1/3 capital per year of 10 months i.e. (1/3&times;12/10=)4/10 per year of 12 months = 40 per cent.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Or, given that <foreign lang="latin">fenus unciarium</foreign> means 10 per cent.; the value of the other fractions is easily ascertained.
</p>
<p>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="20%">Thus:</td><td width="40%"><foreign lang="latin">fenus unciarium</foreign></td><td width="40%">= 10 per cent.</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><foreign lang="latin">,, ex sextante</foreign></td><td>= 20 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><foreign lang="latin">,, ex quadrante</foreign></td><td>= 30 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><foreign lang="latin">,, ex triente</foreign></td><td>= 40 ,,</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td><foreign lang="latin">,, ex quincunce</foreign></td><td>= 50 ,,</td></tr>
</table><br>
and so on.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;After Sulla legal interest was fixed at <foreign lang="latin">centesima</foreign> (<foreign lang="latin">pars</foreign>) per month, i.e. 12 per cent. per annum (<foreign lang="latin">usurae centesimae</foreign>).
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Lower interest was described as a fraction of the centesima per month, e.g. <foreign lang="latin">usurae trientes</foreign> = 4 per cent. per annum. When higher interest was charged (e.g. <foreign lang="latin">binae centesimae</foreign>, 24 per cent.), as was often done, it was charged illegally.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>5. Dates and Works of Authors represented in the Dictionary.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;(Authors are given in alphabetical order of the names by which they are best known in English.)
</p>
<dt>Caesar</dt><dd><p>Caius Iulius Caesar. Born B.C. 100; assassinated B.C. 44.</p><p>Extant works, Seven Books de Bello Gallico, and Three de Bello Civili.</p></dd>
<dt>Catullus</dt><dd><p>Quintus Valerius Catullus. Born about 85 B.C.</p><p>He wrote hexameter, elegiac, lyric, and iambic poems, of which almost all are extant, a few in a mutilated state.</p></dd>
<dt>Cicero</dt><dd><p>Marcus Tullius Cicero. Born B.C. 106; murdered by order of triumvirs B.C. 43.</p><p>His voluminous extant works comprise letters, philosophical treatises, forensic and political speeches, and some poems.</p></dd>
<dt>Quintus Curtius</dt><dd><p>Quintus Curtius Rufus wrote about A.D. 55.</p><p>We have (in an imperfect condition) his history of Alexander the Great.</p></dd>
<dt>Horace</dt><dd><p>Quintus Horatius Flaccus. Born B.C. 65; died B.C. 8.</p><p>His works (all extant) consist of Four Books of Odes (Carmina), One of Epodes, the Carmen Seculare, Two Books of Satires, Two of Epistles, and the Epistola ad Pisones or De Arte Poetica Liber. All the Satires and Epistles are in Hexameter verse.</p></dd>
<dt>Juvenal</dt><dd><p>Decimus Junius Juvenalis. Died about 125 A.D.</p><p>We have of this poet sixteen satires in Hexameter verse.</p></dd>
<dt>Livy</dt><dd><p>Titus Livius Patavinus. Born B.C. 59 ; died A.D. 17.</p><p>He wrote a history of Rome from the foundation of the city up to his own times in 142 books, of which only 35 are extant.</p></dd>
<dt>Nepos</dt><dd><p>Cornelius Nepos (praenomen unknown) wrote about B.C. 44.</p><p>He wrote &#x2018;vitae excellentium imperatorum.&#x2019; What we now possess under that title is probably only an epitome of Nepos' work.</p></dd>
<dt>Ovid</dt><dd><p>Publius Ovidius Naso. Born B.C. 43; died A.D. 17.</p><p>The chief extant works of Ovid are the Heroides, the Fasti, the Amores, the Ars Amandi, the Remedia Amoris, the Metamorphoses, the Tristia, and the Epistolae ex Ponto. The Metamorphoses are in Hexameter verse, all the rest in Elegiac.</p></dd>
<dt>Phaedrus</dt><dd><p>Wrote (perh.) about 15 A.D. His works (extant) are five books of fables (after Aesop) in Iambic verse.</p></dd>
<dt>Propertius</dt><dd><p>Sextus Aurelius Propertius wrote about 30 B.C. His works are five books of &#x2018;Elegies,&#x2019; all extant.</p></dd>
<dt>Sallust</dt><dd><p>Caius Sallustius Crispus. Born B.C. 86; died B.C. 35.</p><p>His extant works are his histories of the Catilinarian Conspiracy and of the Jugurthine War.</p></dd>
<dt>Tacitus</dt><dd><p>Caius Cornelius Tacitus. Born about 57 A.D.; died about 118 A.D.</p><p>His extant works are the &#x2018;Annals,&#x2019; the &#x2018;Histories&#x2019; (both now imperfect), the Germania, the life of Agricola, and the Dialogue &#x2018;de Oratoribus.&#x2019;</p></dd>
<dt>Terence</dt><dd><p>Publius Terentius Afer. Born B.C. 195; died B.C. 159.</p><p>He wrote six comedies (all extant), which were translations or adaptations from Greek sources. Their names are Andria, Eunuchus, Hauton Timorumenos, Phormio, Hecyra, Adelphoe.</p></dd>
<dt>Tibullus</dt><dd><p>Albius Tibullus died B.C. 19. We have four books of Elegies attributed to him, but probably only the first two are genuine.</p></dd>
<dt>Vergil</dt><dd><p>Publius Vergilius Maro. Born B.C. 70; died B.C. 19.</p><p>His works (all extant) were Ten Eclogues or Bucolics, Four Books of Georgics, and The Aeneid (Twelve Books).</p></dd>
<br>
<br>
<H2>6. The Latin Alphabet</H2>
<p>
was derived from the Greek (Chalcidic) colony of Cumae in Italy.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;This was as follows :&mdash;<br>
<img src="latin-chars.bmp" > 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The Romans rejected &#xE10F;, &#xE110;, &#xE111; as letters, retaining them however as numerical signs.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;&#xE115; they altered to P. Z (&#xE112;) soon dropped out, as it was found to be unnecessary and its place was filled in B. C. 312 by a new letter G, now necessary because C had begun to represent a <em>k</em>-sound.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;K was retained in a few words only (Kalendae, Kaeso).
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In Cicero's time Z was reintroduced in the form more familiar to us, to represent the Greek <foreign lang="greek">*z</foreign>. For a like reason Y was added to represent the Greek <foreign lang="greek">*u</foreign>. These letters (and with a few exceptions the combinations TH, PH, CH) were used only in the transliteration of Greek words.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>7. Pronunciation of Latin.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;The following was approximately the pronunciation of Latin in the Augustan age.
</p>

<H3>VOWELS.</H3>
<indent val="3">
<p>
<b>a</b> as <i>a</i> in f<i>a</i>ther.
</p>
<p>
<b>e</b> as <i>a</i> in f<i>a</i>te.
</p>
<p>
<b>i</b> as <i>i</i> in mach<i>i</i>ne.
</p>
<p>
<b>o</b> as <i>o</i> in c<i>o</i>lt.
</p>
<p>
<b>u</b> as <i>u</i> in r<i>u</i>de.
</p>
<p>
<b>y</b> was Greek <foreign lang="greek">u</foreign>, being equivalent to French <i>u</i> or German <i>&uuml;</i>.
</p>
<indent val="1">
<p>
&SP2;A sound between <i>u</i> and <i>i</i> was heard in words where either <i>u</i> or <i>i</i> might be written, as <foreign lang="latin">maxumus, maximus</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;A difference of quantity was strictly a difference of time only, and not one of value.
</p>

<H3>DIPHTHONGS.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;In these the value of both vowels was given, though with great rapidity.
</p>

<H3>CONSONANTS.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;The ordinary English pronunciation is substantially correct, except in the following particulars :&mdash;
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
<b>C</b> was always pronounced as our K or &#x2018;hard&#x2019; C.
</p>
<p>
<b>G</b> was always pronounced as in &#x2018;got&#x2019; or &#x2018;give.&#x2019;
</p>
<p>
<b>I</b> consonant was like English Y consonant.
</p>
<p>
<b>U</b> consonant was like English W (though pronounced more lightly with a tendency to V).
</p>
<p>
<b>X</b> was always KS, never GS.
</p>
<p>
<b>BS</b> was more like PS.
</p>
<p>
<b>R</b> was always sounded and not mute as it so often is in English.
</p>
<p>
Final <b>M</b> and final <b>S</b> were sounded very slightly.
</p>
<p>
<b>TH</b>, <b>PH</b> and <b>CH</b> were probably sounded as T, P, and K followed by H.
</p>
<indent val="1">

<H3>LATIN ACCENT.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;The Latin accent was a variation of stress like ours, but at the same time a variation of pitch.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;It falls on the antepenultimate, unless the penultimate is long, and then it falls upon the penultimate.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;As far as the stress is concerned, the ordinary English pronunciation of Latin words is correct in the main, though exaggerated.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>8. Dialects of Italy.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;Latin was originally only one among many Italian dialects, some of which were but distantly related to it.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Of the two types of dialect that were most nearly akin to Latin a good deal is known. These were (1) the Umbrian, spoken by the peoples to the North of Latium (the Umbrians having at one time possessed Etruria), and (2) the Oscan, spoken by the peoples of Campania and the South. Volscian and Sabellian were probably varieties of Oscan. The nearest dialect to Latin seems to have been that of Falerii, an Umbrian town, situated in what was afterwards called Etruria.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The Umbrians and Oscans used the Etrurian Alphabet, which differed in many points from the Latin, the Falerian type differing less than any other.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The following short sentence is from a fragment of an Oscan law found near Bantia, and now in the Museum of Naples :&mdash; Svae pis contrud exeic fefacust, ionc svae <foreign lang="latin">Si quis contra hoc fecerit, eum si</foreign> pis herest meddis moltaum, licitud. <foreign lang="latin">quis volet magistratus multare, liceto.</foreign>
</p>
<p>
&SP2;&#x2018;If any one shall act contrary to this, if any magistrate shall wish to fine him, let it be lawful.&#x2019;
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The resemblance between the Oscan and the Latin[1] will be obvious.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;As a special point of difference notice the infinitive &#x2018;multa-um.&#x2019;
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Notice also the &#x2018;p&#x2019; where the Latin has &#x2018;qu.&#x2019; Thus we have &#x2018;pam,&#x2019; &#x2018;pon,&#x2019; for &#x2018;quam,&#x2019; &#x2018;quum.&#x2019; 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The final &#x2018;d&#x2019; also appears in old Latin.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;&#x2018;Meddis&#x2019; is well known in the Latin &#x2018;meddix tuticus&#x2019; (the chief magistrate among the Campanians), i.e. &#x2018;magistratus publicus,&#x2019; &#x2018;touto&#x2019; meaning &#x2018;populus.&#x2019;
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The following specimen of Umbrian is from the Iguvian tablets discovered at the site of Iguvium in Umbria :&mdash;
</p>
<p>
&SP2;Este persklum aves anzeriates enetu<br>
&SP2;Ita oblationem avibus circumservatis inito,<br>
&SP4;pernaies pusnaies.<br>
&SP4;anticis posticis.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;&#x2018;Thus enter upon the sacrifice, having observed the birds around, those in front and those behind.&#x2019;
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The resemblance to the Latin is not so conspicuous as in the case of the Oscan.
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
&SP2;[1] The Latin translation is not found on the fragment, but is the result of the work of modern scholars.
</p>
<indent val="1">
<br>
<br>
<H2>9. Specimens of Old Latin.</H2>
<indent val="2">
<p>
&SP2;Elogium Scipionis[1] (he was consul B. C. 298).<br>
<i>L. Cornelio</i> Cn. f. Scipio.<br>
Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus<br>
Gnaivod patre prognatus, fortis vir sapiensque,<br>
Quoius forma virtutei parisuma fuit,<br>
Consul censor aidilis quei fuit apud vos,<br>
Taurasia Cisauna Samnio cepit,<br>
Subigit omne Loucanam opsidesque abdoucit.
</p>
<indent val="1">
<p>
I.e.
</p>
<p>
&SP4;<i>L. Cornelius</i> Cneii filius Scipio.<br>
&SP2;Cornelius Lucius Scipio Barbatus Gnaeo patre prognatus, fortis vir sapiensque, cuius forma virtuti parissima fuit, consul censor aedilis qui fuit apud vos; Taurasiam Cisaunam Samnium[2] cepit, subigit omnem Lucanam obsidesque abducit.
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
&SP2;[1] From a sarcophagus.<br>
&SP2;[2] Or Samnio, &#x2018;in Samnium.&#x2019;
</p>
<indent val="1">

<H4>FROM SENATUSCONSULTUM DE BACCHANALIBUS (B.C. 186).</H4>
<p>
&SP2;Sei ques esent, quei arvorsum ead fecisent, quam suprad scriptum est, eeis rem caputalem faciendam censuere; atque utei hoce in tabolam ahenam inceideretis, ita senatus aiquom censuit.
</p>
<p>
I.e.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;si qui essent, qui adversum-ea fecissent quam supra scriptum est, eis rem capitalem faciendam censuere; atque uti hoc in tabulam ahenam incideretis, ita senatus aequum censuit.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;<foreign lang="latin">Adversum-ea ... quam</foreign> is equivalent to <foreign lang="latin">contra ... quam.</foreign> For the form, cf. <foreign lang="latin">postea ... quam.</foreign>
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>10. The Roman Magistrates.</H2>
<H3>ORDINARY MAGISTRATES OF THE WHOLE POPULUS IN ORDER OF DIGNITY.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;1. <em><dfn>Censor</dfn>.</em> The censors were two in number, elected <em>about</em> every five years, but they held office for only eighteen months. Their chief duties were (i) to prepare the list of the Senate; (ii) to assess the property of the citizens, and draw up the list of tribes, classes, and centuries. They could degrade (<foreign lang="latin">movere ordine</foreign>), disfranchise, or mark with their note (<foreign lang="latin">nota</foreign>) of censure any citizen whom they judged to deserve such disgrace.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In the later Republic the censor was always chosen from those who had already filled the office of consul.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The censorship was instituted B.C. 443.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;It was a curule[1] magistracy, but had no <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign>. The censor had no lictors. The office was opened to plebeians in B.C. 351, and abolished under the Empire.
</p>
<indent val="3">
<p>
&SP2;[1] <i>Curule</i> magistrates were those who sat on a <foreign lang="latin">sella curulis</foreign>. It was a chair inlaid with ivory.
</p>
<indent val="1">
<p>
&SP2;2. <em><dfn>Consul</dfn>.</em> The consuls were two in number, elected annually, and had inherited from the kings that highest power which the Romans called <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign>. It comprised three main functions, (i) to propose bills (<foreign lang="latin">rogationes</foreign>) to the <foreign lang="latin">populus</foreign>, (ii) to command in war, and (iii) to administer justice to the citizens.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The duty of a consul was to command the armies, summon and preside over the assemblies of the <foreign lang="latin">populus</foreign>, whether for the purpose of legislation or for elections, convene and consult the Senate, and, if necessary, nominate a Dictator. The consuls before B.C. 153 began their office on the Ides of March, instead of on the 1st of January as was the custom from that year onwards.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The consulship was a curule magistracy. Each consul was attended by twelve lictors. The office was instituted on the expulsion of Tarquin B.C. 510, and the first consuls took office B.C. 509. It was opened to the plebeians by the Licinian laws in B.C. 367.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;3. <em><dfn>Praetor</dfn>.</em> In the next year the Praetorship was instituted to relieve the consul from his judicial duties. No plebeian praetor was elected until B.C. 337.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;There was at first only one praetor, who presided over the administration of justice at Rome. In B.C. 241 a second was added to preside over actions between Roman citizens and <foreign lang="latin">peregrini</foreign>. He was  callect <foreign lang="latin">Praetor Peregrinus</foreign>, and his colleague henceforth <foreign lang="latin">Praetor Urbanus</foreign>. 
</p>
<p>
&SP2;After B.C. 227 two more praetors were added, to govern Sardinia and Sicily. During the Second Punic War a praetor was commonly given command of the fleet. As provincial governor the praetor discharged the military and executive as well as the judicial functions pertaining to his <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign>. In B.C. 197 the number of praetors was increased to six. Sulla added two more. The number was raised by Julius Caesar to sixteen, and finally fixed by Augustus at twelve. The Praetors were elected annually. They were attended by two lictors each within the city, and by six outside the <foreign lang="latin">pomoerium</foreign> or city boundary. The praetorship was a curule magistracy <foreign lang="latin">cum imperio</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;4. <em><dfn>Curule Aedile</dfn>.</em> Two patrician curule aediles were appointed, B.C. 366, to superintend the public games. After that year the curule aediles were elected from patricians  and plebeians in alternate years until 91 B.C.  when this rotation came to an end. In the last years of the Republic candidates from  both orders were elected indiscriminately.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The duties of the aediles were to superintend the police of the city, to take care  of the buildings, to provide against fires,  to watch over the markets, and to distribute corn to the poor. The curule aediles  managed the <foreign lang="latin">Ludi Romani, Floralia</foreign>, and  <foreign lang="latin">Megalensia</foreign>. They were elected annually and had no <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign> and no lictors.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;5. <em><dfn>Quaestor</dfn>.</em> The quaestors were originally  two in number, acting as secretaries to and  nominated by the consuls. After B.C. 447  they were elected by the <foreign lang="latin">comitia tributa</foreign>. In B.C. 421 the number was increased to  four, and the office thrown open to plebeians. Two (<foreign lang="latin">quaestores urbani</foreign>) stayed at   Rome and had charge of the state treasury, two (<foreign lang="latin">quaestores militares</foreign>) followed the generals and had charge of the military chests. In B.C. 267 four <foreign lang="latin">quaestores classici</foreign> were added to enrol crews and manage the finances of Italy. After that as the number of provinces increased the number of quaestors was gradually augmented, and finally in B.C. 82 was fixed by Sulla at twenty.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;From the time of Sulla onwards entrance on the quaestorship gave admittance to the Senate. The quaestorship was an annual office, not curule, and without <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign>. The quaestors had no lictors.
</p>

<H3>SPECIAL MAGISTRATE.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;<em><dfn>Interrex</dfn>.</em> When for some reason the year of office of the consuls expired without their successors having been elected, the patrician Senators nominated one of their number as <foreign lang="latin">interrex</foreign>. His duty was to hold the comitia for the election of consuls; if he could not do this within five days, he had to nominate another interrex and resign, and so on.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The interrex was always a patrician. He was a curule magistrate with <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign> and was probably attended by twelve lictors.
</p>

<H3>EXTRAORDINARY MAGISTRATES.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;<em><dfn>Dictator</dfn>.</em> In times of special danger, in order to avoid the inconveniences of divided command, a dictator was appointed. He was not elected but nominated (on the advice of the Senate) by one of the consuls. He was a curule magistrate with supreme power. Before him all the ordinary magistrates of the <foreign lang="latin">Populus</foreign> became powerless.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The Dictator was attended by twelve lictors. Sulla in his irregular dictatorship was attended by twenty-four.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The Dictator was bound to abdicate at the end of six months. The office was thrown open to the <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign> in 356 B.C.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;<em><dfn>Magister Equitum</dfn>.</em> With the Dictator, but more commonly by the Dictator, was nominated a Master of the Horse. He was subject to the Dictator, but to no one else. He was a curule magistrate with <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign>, was attended by six lictors, and was in dignity slightly superior to a praetor. The office was thrown open to the <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign> in 368 B.C.
</p>

<H3>PROMAGISTRATES</H3>
<p>
acted <foreign lang="latin">pro magistratibus</foreign>, but always outside the <foreign lang="latin">pomoerium</foreign>. Directly they crossed this their <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign> vanished, unless they were allowed to retain it for a triumph.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The first promagistrate was Q. Publilius Philo, who, after serving as consul for his near B.C. 327), was retained in command of the army <foreign lang="latin">pro consule</foreign>. (N.B. <foreign lang="latin">pro consule</foreign> and <foreign lang="latin">pro praetore</foreign> are much more correct than the words <foreign lang="latin">proconsul</foreign>, <foreign lang="latin">propraetor</foreign>.) 
</p>

<H3>MAGISTRATES OF THE PLEBS.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;<em><dfn>Tribune</dfn>.</em> The <foreign lang="latin">Tribuni plebis</foreign> or <foreign lang="latin">plebei</foreign> were not magistrates in the ordinary sense. They were originally protectors of the <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign>. The primary function of the tribunes was to give protection (<foreign lang="latin">auxilium</foreign>) to any citizen oppressed by the action of the magistrates of the State,  and to render this protection effective they were declared inviolable (<foreign lang="latin">sacrosancti</foreign>). They were the officers of the exclusive Corporation of the <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign>, and had the power of convoking its assembly and proposing Bills to it just as the consuls did to the <foreign lang="latin">Populus</foreign>. About the end of the 4th century B.C. they acquired the right of convening and consulting the Senate. Five (probably) were originally elected (B.C. 494); and in B.C. 457 the number was raised to ten. No patrician could be a tribune of the plebs.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The tribunes could stop all action of the Senate or magistrates by their right of veto (<foreign lang="latin">intercessio</foreign>). Hence they had great power, which was used at first to gain equality of privileges for the plebeians. When this was won they commonly acted during the best times of the Roman Republic in subservience to the Senate. They were of course not curule magistrates, they had no <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign> and no lictors.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;<em><dfn>Plebeian Aedile</dfn>.</em> The office was instituted in B.C. 494. The two plebeian aediles were originally the assistants of the Tribunes. Their duties in later times are not distinguishable from those of the curule aediles. They managed the <foreign lang="latin">Ludi Plebeii</foreign> and <foreign lang="latin">Cereales</foreign>. They had no <foreign lang="latin">imperium</foreign> and no lictors, but were <foreign lang="latin">sacrosancti</foreign>.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>11. Public Assemblies.</H2>
<H3>THE COMITIA.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;The Comitia were legal assemblies of the <foreign lang="latin">Populus Romanus</foreign> for the purpose of voting. An informal assembly was called <foreign lang="latin">contio</foreign>. The assembly of the <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign> is properly called not <foreign lang="latin">comitia</foreign> but <foreign lang="latin">concilium</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;There were three kinds of Comitia.
<indent val="2">
<ol>
<li>Comitia Curiata in which the people voted in <foreign lang="latin">curiae</foreign>.</li>
<li>Comitia Centuriata in which the people voted in <foreign lang="latin">centuriae</foreign>.</li>
<li>Comitia Tributa in which the people voted in <foreign lang="latin">tribus</foreign>.</li>
</ol>
<indent val="1">
</p>
<p>
&SP2;1. The <foreign lang="latin">Comitia Curiata</foreign> was an assembly of the people, divided into thirty <foreign lang="latin">curiae</foreign> or wards (a local division). Each <foreign lang="latin">curia</foreign> had one vote. In historical times the main use of such an assembly was to confer the imperium on newly elected magistrates by passing a <foreign lang="latin">lex curiata</foreign>. Such a <foreign lang="latin">lex</foreign> was also necessary to ratify the form of adoption known as <foreign lang="latin">adrogatio</foreign>. The proceeding was a mere formality, and in process of time the <foreign lang="latin">curiae</foreign> came to be represented by thirty lictors.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;2. The <foreign lang="latin">Comitia Centuriata</foreign> was originally an assembly of people in the classes and centuries (<foreign lang="latin">nominal</foreign> hundreds) established by Servius Tullius. It was in its origin a military assembly, classed according to property as follows :&mdash;
</p>
<table width="100%">
<tr><td width="10%"><foreign lang="latin">Class</foreign></td><td width="20%"><foreign lang="latin">Census</foreign></td><td width="60%"></td><td width="10%"><foreign lang="latin">Centuries.</foreign></td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td>(in <foreign lang="latin">Asses</foreign>).</td><td></td><td></td></tr>
<tr><td>1</td><td>100,000</td><td>Equites</td><td>18</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td></td><td>Pedites</td><td>80</td></tr>
<tr><td>2</td><td>75,000</td><td>Pedites et Fabri</td><td>22</td></tr>
<tr><td>3</td><td>50,000</td><td>Pedites</td><td>20</td></tr>
<tr><td>4</td><td>25,000</td><td>Pedites et Cornicines</td><td>22</td></tr>
<tr><td>5</td><td>11,000</td><td>Pedites</td><td>30</td></tr>
<tr><td>6</td><td></td><td>Proletarii</td><td>1</td></tr>
<tr><td></td><td></td><td>Total centuries</td><td>193</td></tr>
</table>

<p>
&SP2;The centuries in each class were divided into <foreign lang="latin">Seniores</foreign> and  <foreign lang="latin">Iuniores</foreign>. It will be seen that the richest class had 98 votes out of 193: an absolute majority. Furthermore their centuries were no doubt small as compared with those of the lower classes, especially the <foreign lang="latin">Proletarii</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;About B.C. 250 a change was made in the <foreign lang="latin">Comitia Centuriata</foreign>, bringing the centuries into some relation to the tribes. The details are obscure, but it seems that there were five classes, of which the first consisted of seventy centuries, two (one of <foreign lang="latin">seniores</foreign> and one of <foreign lang="latin">iuniores</foreign>) from each of the thirty-five tribes. At the same time the right of voting first was taken away from the equites that had hitherto possessed it, and given to a century of the first class chosen by lot. This century was called the <foreign lang="latin">centuria praerogativa</foreign>, and its vote was, in elections at any rate, commonly followed by the other centuries.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In spite of this change, the richer classes still had a preponderance.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;3. The <foreign lang="latin">Comitia Tributa</foreign> was an assembly of the whole <foreign lang="latin">Populus Romanus</foreign> by Tribes. It was convoked by a consul or praetor, but otherwise it closely resembles the <foreign lang="latin">Concilium Plebis Tributum</foreign>, with which it is often confused.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;It had this advantage over the <foreign lang="latin">comitia centuriata</foreign> that it could be held either within or without the walls, whereas the other, being technically a military assembly, had to be held without the walls (usually in the Campus Martius). Accordingly it superseded the <foreign lang="latin">comitia centuriata</foreign> for every purpose except the election of censors, consuls, and praetors, the declaration of aggressive war, or appeals from the capital sentence of a magistrate.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The mode of voting was the same as that in the <foreign lang="latin">comitia centuriata</foreign>, with the exception that the people voted by tribes and not by centuries.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;The <foreign lang="latin">comitia tributa</foreign> generally met in the lower Forum. 
</p>

<H3>CONCILIA PLEBIS.</H3>
<p>
&SP2;A <foreign lang="latin">concilium plebis</foreign> might be either <foreign lang="latin">curiatum</foreign> or <foreign lang="latin">tributum</foreign>. After 472 B.C. we hear only of the latter. The <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign> assembled without the patricians and under the presidency of their own magistrates, the tribunes. In such a <foreign lang="latin">concilium</foreign> the tribunes and plebeian aediles were elected, and it could pass <foreign lang="latin">Plebiscita</foreign>, which (by the <foreign lang="latin">Lex Hortensia</foreign> B.C. 287) were binding on the whole people.
</p>
<br>
<br>
<H2>12. Mode of Voting.</H2>
<p>
&SP2;N.B. There was no provision for taking the sense of an actual majority of the <foreign lang="latin">Populus</foreign> or <foreign lang="latin">Plebs</foreign>. Each century or tribe had one vote only, and the question was determined by a majority of tribes or centuries, not of individuals, though the vote of a tribe or century was determined by a majority in that unit.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;To take the <foreign lang="latin">comitia centuriata</foreign> as an example, the mode of voting was as follows. The voting-place was divided into <foreign lang="latin">saepta</foreign> (enclosures), one for each century. The citizens passed from these through a narrow passage (<foreign lang="latin">pons</foreign>), and their votes were received by returning officers (<foreign lang="latin">rogatores</foreign>).
</p>
<p>
&SP2;In the <foreign lang="latin">comitia tributa</foreign> or in the <foreign lang="latin">concilium plebis tributum</foreign> the method of voting was, if we substitute &#x2018;tribe&#x2019; for &#x2018;century,&#x2019; precisely the same as in the <foreign lang="latin">comitia centuriata</foreign>.
</p>
<p>
&SP2;By the time of the Punic Wars the <foreign lang="latin">comitia</foreign> and <foreign lang="latin">concilia plebis</foreign> became almost powerless, except for the election of magistrates. They usually gave assent as a matter of course to the bills which magistrates proposed to them under the direction of the Senate. 
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&SP8;&SP8;&SP8;&SP8;[M. T. T.]
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