[Groonga-commit] groonga/grnxx [master] Add a test implementation of DoubleArray.

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susumu.yata null+****@clear*****
Thu Feb 7 19:28:55 JST 2013


susumu.yata	2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (Thu, 07 Feb 2013)

  New Revision: d56bc578c2d62de91bc13a07c59ea37db95124a5
  https://github.com/groonga/grnxx/commit/d56bc578c2d62de91bc13a07c59ea37db95124a5

  Log:
    Add a test implementation of DoubleArray.
    
    This implementation is similar to grn_dat.

  Added files:
    lib/alpha/double_array2.cpp
    lib/alpha/double_array2.hpp
    test/test_alpha_double_array2.cpp
  Modified files:
    .gitignore
    lib/alpha/Makefile.am
    test/Makefile.am

  Modified: .gitignore (+1 -0)
===================================================================
--- .gitignore    2013-02-07 19:25:24 +0900 (c4b39c2)
+++ .gitignore    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (44b4f40)
@@ -28,6 +28,7 @@ src/grnxx
 stamp-h1
 temp/
 test/test_alpha_double_array
+test/test_alpha_double_array2
 test/test_backtrace
 test/test_db_array
 test/test_db_blob_vector

  Modified: lib/alpha/Makefile.am (+2 -0)
===================================================================
--- lib/alpha/Makefile.am    2013-02-07 19:25:24 +0900 (2e9a91a)
+++ lib/alpha/Makefile.am    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (1f6c068)
@@ -4,9 +4,11 @@ libgrnxx_alpha_la_LDFLAGS = @AM_LTLDFLAGS@
 
 libgrnxx_alpha_la_SOURCES =		\
 	double_array.cpp		\
+	double_array2.cpp		\
 	sample.cpp
 
 libgrnxx_alpha_includedir = ${includedir}/grnxx/alpha
 libgrnxx_alpha_include_HEADERS =	\
 	double_array.hpp		\
+	double_array2.hpp		\
 	sample.hpp

  Added: lib/alpha/double_array2.cpp (+1253 -0) 100644
===================================================================
--- /dev/null
+++ lib/alpha/double_array2.cpp    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (3b0fcb4)
@@ -0,0 +1,1253 @@
+/*
+  Copyright (C) 2013  Brazil, Inc.
+
+  This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
+  modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either
+  version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+
+  This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU
+  Lesser General Public License for more details.
+
+  You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
+  Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301  USA
+*/
+#include "double_array2.hpp"
+
+#include "../db/vector.hpp"
+#include "../exception.hpp"
+#include "../lock.hpp"
+#include "../logger.hpp"
+
+namespace grnxx {
+namespace alpha {
+namespace {
+
+// FIXME: To be removed in future.
+using namespace grnxx::db;
+
+constexpr  int64_t MAX_ID         = 0xFFFFFFFFLL;
+constexpr  int64_t INVALID_ID     = -1;
+constexpr uint64_t INVALID_OFFSET = 0;
+
+constexpr uint64_t ROOT_NODE_ID   = 0;
+
+constexpr uint16_t TERMINAL_LABEL = 0x100;
+constexpr uint16_t MAX_LABEL      = TERMINAL_LABEL;
+constexpr uint16_t INVALID_LABEL  = 0x1FF;
+
+constexpr uint64_t CHUNK_SIZE     = 0x200;
+constexpr uint64_t CHUNK_MASK     = 0x1FF;
+
+// Chunks are grouped by the level which indicates how easily update operations
+// can find a good offset in that chunk. The chunk level rises when
+// find_offset() fails in that chunk many times. MAX_FAILURE_COUNT
+// is the threshold. Also, in order to limit the time cost, find_offset() scans
+// at most MAX_CHUNK_COUNT chunks.
+// Larger parameters bring more chances of finding good offsets but it leads to
+// more node renumberings, which are costly operations, and thus results in
+// degradation of space/time efficiencies.
+constexpr uint64_t MAX_FAILURE_COUNT = 4;
+constexpr uint64_t MAX_CHUNK_COUNT   = 16;
+constexpr uint64_t MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL   = 5;
+
+// Chunks in the same level compose a doubly linked list. The entry chunk of
+// a linked list is called a leader. INVALID_LEADER means that
+// the linked list is empty and there exists no leader.
+constexpr uint64_t INVALID_LEADER    = 0x7FFFFFFFU;
+
+// The memory allocation unit size for keys.
+constexpr uint64_t KEYS_PAGE_SIZE    = VECTOR_DEFAULT_PAGE_SIZE;
+
+struct Header {
+  uint32_t nodes_block_id;
+  uint32_t chunks_block_id;
+  uint32_t entries_block_id;
+  uint32_t keys_block_id;
+  uint32_t root_node_id;
+  uint64_t total_key_length;
+  int64_t next_key_id;
+  uint64_t next_key_pos;
+  int64_t max_key_id;
+  uint64_t num_keys;
+  uint64_t num_chunks;
+  uint64_t num_phantoms;
+  uint64_t num_zombies;
+  uint64_t leaders[MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL + 1];
+  Mutex inter_process_mutex;
+
+  Header();
+};
+
+Header::Header()
+  : nodes_block_id(io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID),
+    chunks_block_id(io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID),
+    entries_block_id(io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID),
+    keys_block_id(io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID),
+    root_node_id(0),
+    total_key_length(0),
+    next_key_id(0),
+    next_key_pos(0),
+    max_key_id(-1),
+    num_keys(0),
+    num_chunks(0),
+    num_phantoms(0),
+    num_zombies(0),
+    leaders(),
+    inter_process_mutex() {
+  for (uint32_t i = 0; i <= MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL; ++i) {
+    leaders[i] = INVALID_LEADER;
+  }
+}
+
+class Node {
+ public:
+  Node() : qword_(IS_PHANTOM_FLAG) {}
+
+  // The ID of this node is used as an offset (true) or not (false).
+  bool is_origin() const {
+    // 1 bit.
+    return qword_ & IS_ORIGIN_FLAG;
+  }
+  // This node is valid (false) or not (true).
+  bool is_phantom() const {
+    // 1 bit.
+    return qword_ & IS_PHANTOM_FLAG;
+  }
+  // This node is associated with a key (true) or not (false).
+  bool is_leaf() const {
+    // 1 bit.
+    return qword_ & IS_LEAF_FLAG;
+  }
+
+  void set_is_origin(bool value) {
+    if (value) {
+      qword_ |= IS_ORIGIN_FLAG;
+    } else {
+      qword_ &= ~IS_ORIGIN_FLAG;
+    }
+  }
+  void set_is_phantom(bool value) {
+    if (value) {
+      qword_ = (qword_ & IS_ORIGIN_FLAG) | IS_PHANTOM_FLAG;
+    } else {
+      qword_ = (qword_ & IS_ORIGIN_FLAG) | (INVALID_OFFSET << OFFSET_SHIFT) |
+               (uint64_t(INVALID_LABEL) << CHILD_SHIFT) |
+               (uint64_t(INVALID_LABEL) << SIBLING_SHIFT) | INVALID_LABEL;
+    }
+  }
+
+  // Phantom nodes are doubly linked in each chunk.
+  // Each chunk consists of 512 nodes.
+  uint16_t next() const {
+    // 9 bits.
+    return static_cast<uint16_t>((qword_ >> NEXT_SHIFT) & NEXT_MASK);
+  }
+  uint16_t prev() const {
+    // 9 bits.
+    return static_cast<uint16_t>((qword_ >> PREV_SHIFT) & PREV_MASK);
+  }
+
+  void set_next(uint16_t value) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~(NEXT_MASK << NEXT_SHIFT)) |
+             (static_cast<uint64_t>(value) << NEXT_SHIFT);
+  }
+  void set_prev(uint16_t value) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~(PREV_MASK << PREV_SHIFT)) |
+             (static_cast<uint64_t>(value) << PREV_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+  // A non-phantom node stores its label.
+  // A phantom node returns an invalid label with IS_PHANTOM_FLAG.
+  uint64_t label() const {
+    // 9 bits.
+    return qword_ & (IS_PHANTOM_FLAG | LABEL_MASK);
+  }
+  uint16_t sibling() const {
+    // 9 bits.
+    return static_cast<uint16_t>((qword_ >> SIBLING_SHIFT) & SIBLING_MASK);
+  }
+
+  void set_label(uint16_t value) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~LABEL_MASK) | value;
+  }
+  void set_sibling(uint16_t value) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~(SIBLING_MASK << SIBLING_SHIFT)) |
+             (static_cast<uint64_t>(value) << SIBLING_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+  // A leaf node stores the start position and the length of the associated
+  // key.
+  uint64_t key_pos() const {
+    // 43 bits.
+    return (qword_ >> KEY_POS_SHIFT) & KEY_POS_MASK;
+  }
+
+  void set_key_pos(uint64_t key_pos) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~(KEY_POS_MASK << KEY_POS_SHIFT)) |
+             (key_pos << KEY_POS_SHIFT) | IS_LEAF_FLAG;
+  }
+
+  // A non-phantom and non-leaf node stores the offset to its children,
+  // the label of its next sibling, and the label of its first child.
+  uint64_t offset() const {
+    // 33 bits.
+    return (qword_ >> OFFSET_SHIFT) & OFFSET_MASK;
+  }
+  uint16_t child() const {
+    // 9 bits.
+    return static_cast<uint16_t>((qword_ >> CHILD_SHIFT) & CHILD_MASK);
+  }
+
+  void set_offset(uint64_t value) {
+    if (qword_ & IS_LEAF_FLAG) {
+      qword_ = ((qword_ & ~IS_LEAF_FLAG) & ~(OFFSET_MASK << OFFSET_SHIFT)) |
+               (value << OFFSET_SHIFT) |
+               (uint64_t(INVALID_LABEL) << CHILD_SHIFT);
+    } else {
+      qword_ = (qword_ & ~(OFFSET_MASK << OFFSET_SHIFT)) |
+               (value << OFFSET_SHIFT);
+    }
+  }
+  void set_child(uint16_t value) {
+    qword_ = (qword_ & ~(CHILD_MASK << CHILD_SHIFT)) |
+             (static_cast<uint64_t>(value) << CHILD_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+ private:
+  uint64_t qword_;
+
+  // 61 - 63 (common).
+  static constexpr uint64_t IS_ORIGIN_FLAG   = uint64_t(1) << 63;
+  static constexpr uint64_t IS_PHANTOM_FLAG  = uint64_t(1) << 62;
+  static constexpr uint64_t IS_LEAF_FLAG     = uint64_t(1) << 61;
+
+  // 0 - 17 (phantom).
+  static constexpr uint64_t NEXT_MASK  = (uint64_t(1) << 9) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  NEXT_SHIFT = 0;
+  static constexpr uint64_t PREV_MASK  = (uint64_t(1) << 9) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  PREV_SHIFT = 9;
+
+  // 0 - 17 (non-phantom).
+  static constexpr uint64_t LABEL_MASK    = (uint64_t(1) << 9) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint64_t SIBLING_MASK  = (uint64_t(1) << 9) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  SIBLING_SHIFT = 9;
+
+  // 18 - 60 (leaf)
+  static constexpr uint64_t KEY_POS_MASK     = (uint64_t(1) << 43) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  KEY_POS_SHIFT    = 18;
+
+  // 18 - 60 (non-leaf)
+  static constexpr uint64_t OFFSET_MASK  = (uint64_t(1) << 34) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  OFFSET_SHIFT = 18;
+  static constexpr uint64_t CHILD_MASK   = (uint64_t(1) << 9) - 1;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  CHILD_SHIFT  = 52;
+};
+
+class Chunk {
+ public:
+  Chunk() : qwords_{ 0, 0 } {}
+
+  // Chunks in the same level are doubly linked.
+  uint64_t next() const {
+    // 44 bits.
+    return (qwords_[0] & UPPER_MASK) >> UPPER_SHIFT;
+  }
+  uint64_t prev() const {
+    // 44 bits.
+    return (qwords_[1] & UPPER_MASK) >> UPPER_SHIFT;
+  }
+
+  void set_next(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[0] = (qwords_[0] & ~UPPER_MASK) | (value << UPPER_SHIFT);
+  }
+  void set_prev(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[1] = (qwords_[1] & ~UPPER_MASK) | (value << UPPER_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+  // The chunk level indicates how easily nodes can be put in this chunk.
+  uint64_t level() const {
+    // 10 bits.
+    return (qwords_[0] & MIDDLE_MASK) >> MIDDLE_SHIFT;
+  }
+  uint64_t failure_count() const {
+    // 10 bits.
+    return (qwords_[1] & MIDDLE_MASK) >> MIDDLE_SHIFT;
+  }
+
+  void set_level(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[0] = (qwords_[0] & ~MIDDLE_MASK) | (value << MIDDLE_SHIFT);
+  }
+  void set_failure_count(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[1] = (qwords_[1] & ~MIDDLE_MASK) | (value << MIDDLE_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+  // The first phantom node and the number of phantom nodes in this chunk.
+  uint64_t first_phantom() const {
+    // 10 bits.
+    return (qwords_[0] & LOWER_MASK) >> LOWER_SHIFT;
+  }
+  uint64_t num_phantoms() const {
+    // 10 bits.
+    return (qwords_[1] & LOWER_MASK) >> LOWER_SHIFT;
+  }
+
+  void set_first_phantom(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[0] = (qwords_[0] & ~LOWER_MASK) | (value << LOWER_SHIFT);
+  }
+  void set_num_phantoms(uint64_t value) {
+    qwords_[1] = (qwords_[1] & ~LOWER_MASK) | (value << LOWER_SHIFT);
+  }
+
+ private:
+  uint64_t qwords_[2];
+
+  static constexpr uint8_t  UPPER_SHIFT  = 20;
+  static constexpr uint64_t UPPER_MASK   =
+      ((uint64_t(1) << 44) - 1) << UPPER_SHIFT;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  MIDDLE_SHIFT = 10;
+  static constexpr uint64_t MIDDLE_MASK  =
+      ((uint64_t(1) << 10) - 1) << MIDDLE_SHIFT;
+  static constexpr uint8_t  LOWER_SHIFT  = 0;
+  static constexpr uint64_t LOWER_MASK   =
+      ((uint64_t(1) << 10) - 1) << LOWER_SHIFT;
+};
+
+class Entry {
+ public:
+  Entry() : dword_(0) {}
+
+  // This entry is associated with a key (true) or not (false).
+  explicit operator bool() const {
+    return dword_ & IS_VALID_FLAG;
+  }
+
+  // A valid entry stores the offset and the length of its associated key.
+  uint64_t key_pos() const {
+    // 31-bit.
+    return dword_ & ~IS_VALID_FLAG;
+  }
+
+  void set_key_pos(uint64_t value) {
+    dword_ = IS_VALID_FLAG | value;
+  }
+
+  // An invalid entry stores the index of the next invalid entry.
+  uint64_t next() const {
+    return dword_;
+  }
+
+  void set_next(uint64_t next) {
+    dword_ = next;
+  }
+
+ private:
+  uint32_t dword_;
+
+  static constexpr uint32_t IS_VALID_FLAG = uint32_t(1) << 31;
+};
+
+class Key {
+ public:
+  Key(uint64_t id, const void *address, uint64_t length)
+    : id_(id), length_(length), buf_{ '\0', '\0' } {
+    std::memcpy(buf_, address, length);
+  }
+
+  explicit operator bool() const {
+    return id() != INVALID_ID;
+  }
+
+  const uint8_t &operator[](uint64_t i) const {
+    return buf_[i];
+  }
+
+  int64_t id() const {
+    return id_;
+  }
+  uint16_t length() const {
+    return length_;
+  }
+  const void *ptr() const {
+    return buf_;
+  }
+
+  bool equals_to(const void *ptr, uint64_t length, uint64_t offset = 0) const {
+    if (length != length_) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    for ( ; offset < length; ++offset) {
+      if (buf_[offset] != static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr)[offset]) {
+        return false;
+      }
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  static const Key &invalid_key() {
+    static const Key invalid_key(INVALID_ID, nullptr, 0);
+    return invalid_key;
+  }
+
+  static uint64_t estimate_size(uint64_t length) {
+    return (9 + length) / sizeof(uint32_t);
+  }
+
+ private:
+  int32_t id_;
+  uint16_t length_;
+  uint8_t buf_[2];
+};
+
+class Impl : public DoubleArray2 {
+ public:
+  ~Impl();
+
+  static Impl *create(io::Pool pool);
+  static Impl *open(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id);
+
+  uint32_t block_id() const {
+    return block_info_->id();
+  }
+
+  bool search_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void **ptr, uint64_t *length);
+  bool search_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length, int64_t *key_id);
+
+  bool insert(const void *ptr, uint64_t length, int64_t *key_id);
+
+  bool remove_by_id(int64_t key_id);
+  bool remove_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length);
+
+  bool update_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void *ptr, uint64_t length);
+  bool update_by_key(const void *src_ptr, uint64_t src_length,
+                     const void *dest_ptr, uint64_t dest_length,
+                     int64_t *key_id);
+
+ private:
+  io::Pool pool_;
+  const io::BlockInfo *block_info_;
+  Header *header_;
+  Recycler *recycler_;
+  Node *nodes_;
+  Chunk *chunks_;
+  Entry *entries_;
+  Vector<uint32_t> keys_;
+  bool initialized_;
+
+  Impl();
+
+  void create_double_array(io::Pool pool);
+  void open_double_array(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id);
+
+  const Key &get_key(uint64_t key_pos) {
+    return *reinterpret_cast<const Key *>(&keys_[key_pos]);
+  }
+
+  bool remove_key(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length);
+  bool update_key(const uint8_t *src_ptr, uint64_t src_length,
+                  int64_t src_key_id, const uint8_t *dest_ptr,
+                  uint64_t dest_length);
+
+  bool search_leaf(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                   uint64_t &node_id, uint64_t &query_pos);
+
+  bool insert_leaf(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                   uint64_t &node_id, uint64_t query_pos);
+
+  uint64_t insert_node(uint64_t node_id, uint16_t label);
+  uint64_t append_key(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length, uint64_t key_id);
+
+  uint64_t separate(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                    uint64_t node_id, uint64_t i);
+  void resolve(uint64_t node_id, uint16_t label);
+  void migrate_nodes(uint64_t node_id, uint64_t dest_offset,
+                     const uint16_t *labels, uint16_t num_labels);
+
+  uint64_t find_offset(const uint16_t *labels, uint16_t num_labels);
+
+  void reserve_node(uint64_t node_id);
+  void reserve_chunk(uint64_t chunk_id);
+
+  void update_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id, uint32_t level);
+  void set_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id, uint32_t level);
+  void unset_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id);
+};
+
+Impl::~Impl() {
+  if (!initialized_) try {
+    // Allocated blocks are unlinked if initialization failed.
+    if (header_->nodes_block_id != io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID) {
+      pool_.free_block(header_->nodes_block_id);
+    }
+    if (header_->chunks_block_id != io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID) {
+      pool_.free_block(header_->chunks_block_id);
+    }
+    if (header_->entries_block_id != io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID) {
+      pool_.free_block(header_->entries_block_id);
+    }
+    if (header_->keys_block_id != io::BLOCK_INVALID_ID) {
+      keys_.unlink(pool_, header_->keys_block_id);
+    }
+    if (block_info_) {
+      pool_.free_block(*block_info_);
+    }
+  } catch (...) {
+  }
+}
+
+Impl *Impl::create(io::Pool pool) {
+  std::unique_ptr<Impl> impl(new (std::nothrow) Impl);
+  if (!impl) {
+    GRNXX_ERROR() << "new grnxx::alpha::Impl failed";
+    GRNXX_THROW();
+  }
+  impl->create_double_array(pool);
+  return impl.release();
+}
+
+Impl *Impl::open(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id) {
+  std::unique_ptr<Impl> impl(new (std::nothrow) Impl);
+  if (!impl) {
+    GRNXX_ERROR() << "new grnxx::alpha::Impl failed";
+    GRNXX_THROW();
+  }
+  impl->open_double_array(pool, block_id);
+  return impl.release();
+}
+
+bool Impl::search_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void **ptr, uint64_t *length) {
+  if (!entries_[key_id]) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (ptr || length) {
+    const Key &key = get_key(entries_[key_id].key_pos());
+    if (ptr) {
+      *ptr = key.ptr();
+    }
+    if (length) {
+      *length = key.length();
+    }
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+bool Impl::search_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length, int64_t *key_id) {
+  uint64_t node_id = ROOT_NODE_ID;
+  uint64_t query_pos = 0;
+  if (!search_leaf(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length,
+                   node_id, query_pos)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  // Note that nodes_[node_id] might be updated by other threads/processes.
+  const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+  if (!node.is_leaf()) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const Key &key = get_key(node.key_pos());
+  if (key.equals_to(ptr, length, query_pos)) {
+    if (key_id) {
+      *key_id = key.id();
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+bool Impl::insert(const void *ptr, uint64_t length, int64_t *key_id) {
+  // TODO: Exclusive access control is required.
+
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(STATUS_ERROR, (status_flags() & CHANGING_MASK) != 0);
+//  StatusFlagManager status_flag_manager(header_, INSERTING_FLAG);
+
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!ptr && (length != 0));
+
+  uint64_t node_id = ROOT_NODE_ID;
+  uint64_t query_pos = 0;
+
+  search_leaf(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length, node_id, query_pos);
+  if (!insert_leaf(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length,
+                   node_id, query_pos)) {
+    if (key_id) {
+      *key_id = get_key(nodes_[node_id].key_pos()).id();
+    }
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const int64_t new_key_id = header_->next_key_id;
+  const uint64_t new_key_pos =
+      append_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length, new_key_id);
+
+  header_->total_key_length += length;
+  ++header_->num_keys;
+
+  // TODO: The first key ID should be fixed to 0 or 1.
+  //       Currently, 0 is used.
+  if (new_key_id > header_->max_key_id) {
+    header_->max_key_id = new_key_id;
+    header_->next_key_id = new_key_id + 1;
+  } else {
+    header_->next_key_id = entries_[new_key_id].next();
+  }
+
+  entries_[new_key_id].set_key_pos(new_key_pos);
+  nodes_[node_id].set_key_pos(new_key_pos);
+  if (key_id) {
+    *key_id = new_key_id;
+  }
+  return true;
+}
+
+bool Impl::remove_by_id(int64_t key_id) {
+  // TODO: Exclusive access control is required.
+  if ((key_id < 0) || (key_id > header_->max_key_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const Entry entry = entries_[key_id];
+  if (!entry) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const Key &key = get_key(entry.key_pos());
+  return remove_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(key.ptr()), key.length());
+}
+
+bool Impl::remove_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length) {
+  // TODO: Exclusive access control is required.
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(STATUS_ERROR, (status_flags() & CHANGING_MASK) != 0);
+//  StatusFlagManager status_flag_manager(header_, REMOVING_FLAG);
+
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF((ptr == nullptr) && (length != 0));
+  return remove_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length);
+}
+
+bool Impl::update_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void *ptr, uint64_t length) {
+  // TODO: Exclusive access control is required.
+  if ((key_id < 0) || (key_id > header_->max_key_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const Entry entry = entries_[key_id];
+  if (!entry) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  const Key &key = get_key(entry.key_pos());
+  return update_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(key.ptr()), key.length(),
+                    key_id, static_cast<const uint8_t *>(ptr), length);
+}
+
+bool Impl::update_by_key(const void *src_ptr, uint64_t src_length,
+                         const void *dest_ptr, uint64_t dest_length,
+                         int64_t *key_id) {
+  // TODO: Exclusive access control is required.
+  int64_t src_key_id;
+  if (!search_by_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(src_ptr), src_length,
+                     &src_key_id)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  if (update_key(static_cast<const uint8_t *>(src_ptr), src_length,
+                 src_key_id, static_cast<const uint8_t *>(dest_ptr),
+                 dest_length)) {
+    if (key_id) {
+      *key_id = src_key_id;
+    }
+    return true;
+  }
+  return false;
+}
+
+bool Impl::update_key(const uint8_t *src_ptr, uint64_t src_length,
+                      int64_t src_key_id, const uint8_t *dest_ptr,
+                      uint64_t dest_length) {
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(STATUS_ERROR, (status_flags() & CHANGING_MASK) != 0);
+//  StatusFlagManager status_flag_manager(header_, UPDATING_FLAG);
+
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF((ptr == NULL) && (length != 0));
+
+  uint64_t node_id = ROOT_NODE_ID;
+  uint64_t query_pos = 0;
+
+  search_leaf(dest_ptr, dest_length, node_id, query_pos);
+  if (!insert_leaf(dest_ptr, dest_length, node_id, query_pos)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const uint64_t new_key_pos = append_key(dest_ptr, dest_length, src_key_id);
+  header_->total_key_length =
+      header_->total_key_length + dest_length - src_length;
+  entries_[src_key_id].set_key_pos(new_key_pos);
+  nodes_[node_id].set_key_pos(new_key_pos);
+
+  node_id = ROOT_NODE_ID;
+  query_pos = 0;
+  if (!search_leaf(src_ptr, src_length, node_id, query_pos)) {
+    // TODO: Unexpected error!
+  }
+  nodes_[node_id].set_offset(INVALID_OFFSET);
+  return true;
+}
+
+Impl::Impl()
+  : pool_(),
+    block_info_(nullptr),
+    header_(nullptr),
+    recycler_(nullptr),
+    nodes_(),
+    chunks_(),
+    entries_(),
+    keys_(),
+    initialized_(false) {}
+
+void Impl::create_double_array(io::Pool pool) {
+  pool_ = pool;
+
+  block_info_ = pool_.create_block(sizeof(Header));
+
+  void * const block_address = pool_.get_block_address(*block_info_);
+  header_ = static_cast<Header *>(block_address);
+  *header_ = Header();
+
+  recycler_ = pool_.mutable_recycler();
+
+  // TODO: Tell me the size of buffers!
+  const io::BlockInfo *block_info;
+
+  block_info = pool_.create_block(sizeof(Node) * (1 << 27));
+  header_->nodes_block_id = block_info->id();
+  nodes_ = static_cast<Node *>(pool_.get_block_address(*block_info));
+
+  block_info = pool_.create_block(sizeof(Chunk) * (1 << 18));
+  header_->chunks_block_id = block_info->id();
+  chunks_ = static_cast<Chunk *>(pool_.get_block_address(*block_info));
+
+  block_info = pool_.create_block(sizeof(Entry) * (1 << 25));
+  header_->entries_block_id = block_info->id();
+  entries_ = static_cast<Entry *>(pool_.get_block_address(*block_info));
+
+  keys_.create(pool);
+  header_->keys_block_id = keys_.block_id();
+
+  reserve_node(ROOT_NODE_ID);
+  nodes_[INVALID_OFFSET].set_is_origin(true);
+
+  initialized_ = true;
+}
+
+void Impl::open_double_array(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id) {
+  pool_ = pool;
+  initialized_ = true;
+
+  block_info_ = pool_.get_block_info(block_id);
+
+  void * const block_address = pool_.get_block_address(*block_info_);
+  header_ = static_cast<Header *>(block_address);
+
+  // TODO: Check the format.
+
+  recycler_ = pool_.mutable_recycler();
+
+  nodes_ = static_cast<Node *>(
+      pool_.get_block_address(header_->nodes_block_id));
+  chunks_ = static_cast<Chunk *>(
+      pool_.get_block_address(header_->chunks_block_id));
+  entries_ = static_cast<Entry *>(
+      pool_.get_block_address(header_->entries_block_id));
+  keys_.open(pool_, header_->keys_block_id);
+}
+
+bool Impl::remove_key(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length) {
+  uint64_t node_id = ROOT_NODE_ID;
+  uint64_t query_pos = 0;
+  if (!search_leaf(ptr, length, node_id, query_pos)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const uint64_t key_pos = nodes_[node_id].key_pos();
+  const Key &key = get_key(key_pos);
+  if (!key.equals_to(ptr, length, query_pos)) {
+    return false;
+  }
+
+  const uint64_t key_id = key.id();
+  nodes_[node_id].set_offset(INVALID_OFFSET);
+  entries_[key_id].set_next(header_->next_key_id);
+
+  header_->next_key_id = key_id;
+  header_->total_key_length -= length;
+  --header_->num_keys;
+  return true;
+}
+
+bool Impl::search_leaf(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                       uint64_t &node_id, uint64_t &query_pos) {
+  for ( ; query_pos < length; ++query_pos) {
+    const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+    if (node.is_leaf()) {
+      return true;
+    }
+
+    const uint64_t next = node.offset() ^ ptr[query_pos];
+    if (nodes_[next].label() != ptr[query_pos]) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    node_id = next;
+  }
+
+  const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+  if (node.is_leaf()) {
+    return true;
+  }
+
+  if (node.child() != TERMINAL_LABEL) {
+    return false;
+  }
+  node_id = node.offset() ^ TERMINAL_LABEL;
+  return nodes_[node_id].is_leaf();
+}
+
+bool Impl::insert_leaf(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                       uint64_t &node_id, uint64_t query_pos) {
+  const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+  if (node.is_leaf()) {
+    const Key &key = get_key(node.key_pos());
+    uint64_t i = query_pos;
+    while ((i < length) && (i < key.length())) {
+      if (ptr[i] != key[i]) {
+        break;
+      }
+      ++i;
+    }
+    if ((i == length) && (i == key.length())) {
+      return false;
+    }
+    // TODO
+//    GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(SIZE_ERROR, num_keys() >= max_num_keys());
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next_key_id() > max_num_keys());
+
+    for (uint64_t j = query_pos; j < i; ++j) {
+      node_id = insert_node(node_id, ptr[j]);
+    }
+    node_id = separate(ptr, length, node_id, i);
+    return true;
+  } else if (node.label() == TERMINAL_LABEL) {
+    return true;
+  } else {
+    // TODO
+//    GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(SIZE_ERROR, num_keys() >= max_num_keys());
+    const uint16_t label = (query_pos < length) ?
+        static_cast<uint16_t>(ptr[query_pos]) : TERMINAL_LABEL;
+    if ((node.offset() == INVALID_OFFSET) ||
+        !nodes_[node.offset() ^ label].is_phantom()) {
+      // The offset of this node must be updated.
+      resolve(node_id, label);
+    }
+    // The new node will be the leaf node associated with the query.
+    node_id = insert_node(node_id, label);
+    return true;
+  }
+}
+
+uint64_t Impl::insert_node(uint64_t node_id, uint16_t label) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node_id >= num_nodes());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(label > MAX_LABEL);
+
+  const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+  uint64_t offset;
+  if (node.is_leaf() || (node.offset() == INVALID_OFFSET)) {
+    offset = find_offset(&label, 1);
+  } else {
+    offset = node.offset();
+  }
+
+  const uint64_t next = offset ^ label;
+  reserve_node(next);
+
+  nodes_[next].set_label(label);
+  if (node.is_leaf()) {
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[offset].is_origin());
+    nodes_[offset].set_is_origin(true);
+    nodes_[next].set_key_pos(node.key_pos());
+    // TODO: Must be update at once.
+  } else if (node.offset() == INVALID_OFFSET) {
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[offset].is_origin());
+    nodes_[offset].set_is_origin(true);
+//  } else {
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!nodes_[offset].is_origin());
+  }
+  nodes_[node_id].set_offset(offset);
+
+  const uint16_t child_label = nodes_[node_id].child();
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(child_label == label);
+  if (child_label == INVALID_LABEL) {
+    nodes_[node_id].set_child(label);
+  } else if ((label == TERMINAL_LABEL) ||
+             ((child_label != TERMINAL_LABEL) &&
+              (label < child_label))) {
+    // The next node becomes the first child.
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[offset ^ child_label).is_phantom());
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[offset ^ child_label).label() != child_label);
+    nodes_[next].set_sibling(child_label);
+    nodes_[node_id].set_child(label);
+  } else {
+    uint64_t prev = offset ^ child_label;
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[prev).label() != child_label);
+    uint16_t sibling_label = nodes_[prev].sibling();
+    while (label > sibling_label) {
+      prev = offset ^ sibling_label;
+//      GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[prev].label() != sibling_label);
+      sibling_label = nodes_[prev].sibling();
+    }
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(label == sibling_label);
+    nodes_[next].set_sibling(nodes_[prev].sibling());
+    nodes_[prev].set_sibling(label);
+  }
+  return next;
+}
+
+uint64_t Impl::append_key(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                                     uint64_t key_id) {
+  // TODO
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(SIZE_ERROR, key_id > max_num_keys());
+
+  uint64_t key_pos = header_->next_key_pos;
+  const uint64_t key_size = Key::estimate_size(length);
+
+  // TODO
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(SIZE_ERROR, key_size > (key_buf_size() - key_pos));
+  const uint64_t size_left_in_page = (~key_pos + 1) % KEYS_PAGE_SIZE;
+  if (size_left_in_page < key_size) {
+    key_pos += size_left_in_page;
+  }
+  new (&keys_[key_pos]) Key(key_id, ptr, length);
+
+  header_->next_key_pos = key_pos + key_size;
+  return key_pos;
+}
+
+uint64_t Impl::separate(const uint8_t *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                        uint64_t node_id, uint64_t i) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node_id >= num_nodes());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!nodes_[node_id].is_leaf());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(i > length);
+
+  const Node node = nodes_[node_id];
+  const Key &key = get_key(node.key_pos());
+
+  uint16_t labels[2];
+  labels[0] = (i < key.length()) ?
+      static_cast<uint16_t>(key[i]) : TERMINAL_LABEL;
+  labels[1] = (i < length) ?
+      static_cast<uint16_t>(ptr[i]) : TERMINAL_LABEL;
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(labels[0] == labels[1]);
+
+  const uint64_t offset = find_offset(labels, 2);
+
+  uint64_t next = offset ^ labels[0];
+  reserve_node(next);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[offset).is_origin());
+
+  nodes_[next].set_label(labels[0]);
+  nodes_[next].set_key_pos(node.key_pos());
+
+  next = offset ^ labels[1];
+  reserve_node(next);
+
+  nodes_[next].set_label(labels[1]);
+
+  nodes_[offset].set_is_origin(true);
+  nodes_[node_id].set_offset(offset);
+
+  if ((labels[0] == TERMINAL_LABEL) ||
+      ((labels[1] != TERMINAL_LABEL) &&
+       (labels[0] < labels[1]))) {
+    nodes_[offset ^ labels[0]].set_sibling(labels[1]);
+    nodes_[node_id].set_child(labels[0]);
+  } else {
+    nodes_[offset ^ labels[1]].set_sibling(labels[0]);
+    nodes_[node_id].set_child(labels[1]);
+  }
+  return next;
+}
+
+void Impl::resolve(uint64_t node_id, uint16_t label) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node_id >= num_nodes());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[node_id].is_leaf());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(label > MAX_LABEL);
+
+  uint64_t offset = nodes_[node_id].offset();
+  if (offset != INVALID_OFFSET) {
+    uint16_t labels[MAX_LABEL + 1];
+    uint16_t num_labels = 0;
+
+    uint16_t next_label = nodes_[node_id].child();
+    // FIXME: How to check if the node has children or not.
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next_label == INVALID_LABEL);
+    while (next_label != INVALID_LABEL) {
+//      GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next_label > MAX_LABEL);
+      labels[num_labels++] = next_label;
+      next_label = nodes_[offset ^ next_label].sibling();
+    }
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(num_labels == 0);
+
+    labels[num_labels] = label;
+    offset = find_offset(labels, num_labels + 1);
+    migrate_nodes(node_id, offset, labels, num_labels);
+  } else {
+    offset = find_offset(&label, 1);
+    if (offset >= (header_->num_chunks * CHUNK_SIZE)) {
+//      GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF((offset / BLOCK_SIZE) != num_blocks());
+      reserve_chunk(header_->num_chunks);
+    }
+    nodes_[offset].set_is_origin(true);
+    nodes_[node_id].set_offset(offset);
+  }
+}
+
+void Impl::migrate_nodes(uint64_t node_id, uint64_t dest_offset,
+                         const uint16_t *labels, uint16_t num_labels) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node_id >= num_nodes());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[node_id].is_leaf());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(labels == nullptr);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(num_labels == 0);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(num_labels > (MAX_LABEL + 1));
+
+  const uint64_t src_offset = nodes_[node_id].offset();
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(src_offset == INVALID_OFFSET);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!nodes_[src_offset].is_origin());
+
+  for (uint16_t i = 0; i < num_labels; ++i) {
+    const uint64_t src_node_id = src_offset ^ labels[i];
+    const uint64_t dest_node_id = dest_offset ^ labels[i];
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(ith_node(src_node_id).is_phantom());
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(ith_node(src_node_id).label() != labels[i]);
+
+    reserve_node(dest_node_id);
+    Node dest_node = nodes_[src_node_id];
+    dest_node.set_is_origin(nodes_[dest_node_id].is_origin());
+    nodes_[dest_node_id] = dest_node;
+  }
+  header_->num_zombies += num_labels;
+
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(nodes_[dest_offset].is_origin());
+  nodes_[dest_offset].set_is_origin(true);
+  nodes_[node_id].set_offset(dest_offset);
+}
+
+uint64_t Impl::find_offset(const uint16_t *labels, uint16_t num_labels) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(labels == nullptr);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(num_labels == 0);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(num_labels > (MAX_LABEL + 1));
+
+  // Chunks are tested in descending order of level. Basically, lower level
+  // chunks contain more phantom nodes.
+  uint32_t level = 1;
+  while (num_labels >= (1U << level)) {
+    ++level;
+  }
+  level = (level < MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL) ? (MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL - level) : 0;
+
+  uint64_t chunk_count = 0;
+  do {
+    uint64_t leader = header_->leaders[level];
+    if (leader == INVALID_LEADER) {
+      // This level group is skipped because it is empty.
+      continue;
+    }
+
+    uint64_t chunk_id = leader;
+    do {
+      const Chunk &chunk = chunks_[chunk_id];
+//      GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk.level() != level);
+
+      const uint64_t first = (chunk_id * CHUNK_SIZE) | chunk.first_phantom();
+      uint64_t node_id = first;
+      do {
+//        GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!nodes_[node_id=]).is_phantom());
+        const uint64_t offset = node_id ^ labels[0];
+        if (!nodes_[offset].is_origin()) {
+          uint16_t i = 1;
+          for ( ; i < num_labels; ++i) {
+            if (!nodes_[offset ^ labels[i]].is_phantom()) {
+              break;
+            }
+          }
+          if (i >= num_labels) {
+            return offset;
+          }
+        }
+        node_id = (chunk_id * CHUNK_SIZE) | nodes_[node_id].next();
+      } while (node_id != first);
+
+      const uint64_t prev = chunk_id;
+      const uint64_t next = chunk.next();
+      chunk_id = next;
+      chunks_[prev].set_failure_count(chunks_[prev].failure_count() + 1);
+
+      // The level of a chunk is updated when this function fails many times,
+      // actually MAX_FAILURE_COUNT times, in that chunk.
+      if (chunks_[prev].failure_count() == MAX_FAILURE_COUNT) {
+        update_chunk_level(prev, level + 1);
+        if (next == leader) {
+          break;
+        } else {
+          // Note that the leader might be updated in the level update.
+          leader = header_->leaders[level];
+          continue;
+        }
+      }
+    } while ((++chunk_count < MAX_CHUNK_COUNT) &&
+             (chunk_id != leader));
+  } while ((chunk_count < MAX_CHUNK_COUNT) && (level-- != 0));
+
+  return (header_->num_chunks * CHUNK_SIZE) ^ labels[0];
+}
+
+void Impl::reserve_node(uint64_t node_id) {
+  if (node_id >= (header_->num_chunks * CHUNK_SIZE)) {
+    reserve_chunk(node_id / CHUNK_SIZE);
+  }
+
+  Node &node = nodes_[node_id];
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(!node.is_phantom());
+
+  const uint64_t chunk_id = node_id / CHUNK_SIZE;
+  Chunk &chunk = chunks_[chunk_id];
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk.num_phantoms() == 0);
+
+  const uint64_t next = (chunk_id * CHUNK_SIZE) | node.next();
+  const uint64_t prev = (chunk_id * CHUNK_SIZE) | node.prev();
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next >= header_->num_nodes());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(prev >= header_->num_nodes());
+
+  if ((node_id & CHUNK_MASK) == chunk.first_phantom()) {
+    // The first phantom node is removed from the chunk and the second phantom
+    // node comes first.
+    chunk.set_first_phantom(next & CHUNK_MASK);
+  }
+
+  nodes_[next].set_prev(prev & CHUNK_MASK);
+  nodes_[prev].set_next(next & CHUNK_MASK);
+
+  if (chunk.level() != MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL) {
+    const uint64_t threshold =
+        uint64_t(1) << ((MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL - chunk.level() - 1) * 2);
+    if (chunk.num_phantoms() == threshold) {
+      update_chunk_level(chunk_id, chunk.level() + 1);
+    }
+  }
+  chunk.set_num_phantoms(chunk.num_phantoms() - 1);
+
+  node.set_is_phantom(false);
+
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node.offset() != INVALID_OFFSET);
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(node.label() != INVALID_LABEL);
+
+  --header_->num_phantoms;
+}
+
+void Impl::reserve_chunk(uint64_t chunk_id) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk_id != num_chunks());
+  // TODO
+//  GRN_DAT_THROW_IF(SIZE_ERROR, chunk_id >= max_num_chunks());
+
+  header_->num_chunks = chunk_id + 1;
+  chunks_[chunk_id].set_failure_count(0);
+  chunks_[chunk_id].set_first_phantom(0);
+  chunks_[chunk_id].set_num_phantoms(CHUNK_SIZE);
+
+  const uint64_t begin = chunk_id * CHUNK_SIZE;
+  const uint64_t end = begin + CHUNK_SIZE;
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(end != num_nodes());
+
+  Node node;
+  node.set_is_phantom(true);
+
+  for (uint64_t i = begin; i < end; ++i) {
+    node.set_prev((i - 1) & CHUNK_MASK);
+    node.set_next((i + 1) & CHUNK_MASK);
+    nodes_[i] = node;
+  }
+
+  // The level of the new chunk is 0.
+  set_chunk_level(chunk_id, 0);
+  header_->num_phantoms += CHUNK_SIZE;
+}
+
+void Impl::update_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id, uint32_t level) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk_id >= num_chunks());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(level > MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL);
+
+  unset_chunk_level(chunk_id);
+  set_chunk_level(chunk_id, level);
+}
+
+void Impl::set_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id, uint32_t level) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk_id >= num_chunks());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(level > MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL);
+
+  const uint64_t leader = header_->leaders[level];
+  if (leader == INVALID_LEADER) {
+    // The chunk becomes the only one member of the level group.
+    chunks_[chunk_id].set_next(chunk_id);
+    chunks_[chunk_id].set_prev(chunk_id);
+    header_->leaders[level] = chunk_id;
+  } else {
+    // The chunk is appended to the level group, in practice.
+    const uint64_t next = leader;
+    const uint64_t prev = chunks_[leader].prev();
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next >= num_chunks());
+//    GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(prev >= num_chunks());
+    chunks_[chunk_id].set_next(next);
+    chunks_[chunk_id].set_prev(prev);
+    chunks_[next].set_prev(chunk_id);
+    chunks_[prev].set_next(chunk_id);
+  }
+  chunks_[chunk_id].set_level(level);
+  chunks_[chunk_id].set_failure_count(0);
+}
+
+void Impl::unset_chunk_level(uint64_t chunk_id) {
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(chunk_id >= num_chunk());
+
+  const uint32_t level = chunks_[chunk_id].level();
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(level > MAX_CHUNK_LEVEL);
+
+  const uint64_t leader = header_->leaders[level];
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(leader == INVALID_LEADER);
+
+  const uint64_t next = chunks_[chunk_id].next();
+  const uint64_t prev = chunks_[chunk_id].prev();
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(next >= num_chunks());
+//  GRN_DAT_DEBUG_THROW_IF(prev >= num_chunks());
+
+  if (next == chunk_id) {
+    // The level group becomes empty.
+    header_->leaders[level] = INVALID_LEADER;
+  } else {
+    chunks_[next].set_prev(prev);
+    chunks_[prev].set_next(next);
+    if (chunk_id == leader) {
+      // The second chunk becomes the leader of the level group.
+      header_->leaders[level] = next;
+    }
+  }
+}
+
+}  // namespace
+
+DoubleArray2::DoubleArray2() {}
+DoubleArray2::~DoubleArray2() {}
+
+DoubleArray2 *DoubleArray2::create(io::Pool pool) {
+  return Impl::create(pool);
+}
+
+DoubleArray2 *DoubleArray2::open(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id) {
+  return Impl::open(pool, block_id);
+}
+
+}  // namespace alpha
+}  // namespace grnxx
+

  Added: lib/alpha/double_array2.hpp (+57 -0) 100644
===================================================================
--- /dev/null
+++ lib/alpha/double_array2.hpp    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (ab3d0c4)
@@ -0,0 +1,57 @@
+/*
+  Copyright (C) 2013  Brazil, Inc.
+
+  This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
+  modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either
+  version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+
+  This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU
+  Lesser General Public License for more details.
+
+  You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
+  Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301  USA
+*/
+#ifndef GRNXX_ALPHA_DOUBLE_ARRAY2_HPP
+#define GRNXX_ALPHA_DOUBLE_ARRAY2_HPP
+
+#include "../io/pool.hpp"
+
+namespace grnxx {
+namespace alpha {
+
+class DoubleArray2 {
+ public:
+  DoubleArray2();
+  virtual ~DoubleArray2();
+
+  static DoubleArray2 *create(io::Pool pool);
+  static DoubleArray2 *open(io::Pool pool, uint32_t block_id);
+
+  virtual uint32_t block_id() const = 0;
+
+  virtual bool search_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void **ptr,
+                            uint64_t *length) = 0;
+  virtual bool search_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                             int64_t *key_id = nullptr) = 0;
+
+  virtual bool insert(const void *ptr, uint64_t length,
+                      int64_t *key_id = nullptr) = 0;
+
+  virtual bool remove_by_id(int64_t key_id) = 0;
+  virtual bool remove_by_key(const void *ptr, uint64_t length) = 0;
+
+  virtual bool update_by_id(int64_t key_id, const void *ptr,
+                            uint64_t length) = 0;
+  virtual bool update_by_key(const void *src_ptr, uint64_t src_length,
+                             const void *dest_ptr, uint64_t dest_length,
+                             int64_t *key_id = nullptr) = 0;
+};
+
+}  // namespace alpha
+}  // namespace grnxx
+
+#endif  // GRNXX_ALPHA_DOUBLE_ARRAY2_HPP

  Modified: test/Makefile.am (+4 -0)
===================================================================
--- test/Makefile.am    2013-02-07 19:25:24 +0900 (2634ae3)
+++ test/Makefile.am    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (f996a6d)
@@ -2,6 +2,7 @@ AM_CXXFLAGS = @AM_CXXFLAGS@ -I$(top_srcdir)/lib
 
 TESTS =				\
 	test_alpha_double_array	\
+	test_alpha_double_array2	\
 	test_backtrace		\
 	test_db_array		\
 	test_db_blob_vector	\
@@ -32,6 +33,9 @@ check_PROGRAMS = $(TESTS)
 test_alpha_double_array_SOURCES = test_alpha_double_array.cpp
 test_alpha_double_array_LDADD = ../lib/libgrnxx.la
 
+test_alpha_double_array2_SOURCES = test_alpha_double_array2.cpp
+test_alpha_double_array2_LDADD = ../lib/libgrnxx.la
+
 test_backtrace_SOURCES = test_backtrace.cpp
 test_backtrace_LDADD = ../lib/libgrnxx.la
 

  Added: test/test_alpha_double_array2.cpp (+295 -0) 100644
===================================================================
--- /dev/null
+++ test/test_alpha_double_array2.cpp    2013-02-07 19:28:55 +0900 (503e8b3)
@@ -0,0 +1,295 @@
+/*
+  Copyright (C) 2013  Brazil, Inc.
+
+  This library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
+  modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License as published by the Free Software Foundation; either
+  version 2.1 of the License, or (at your option) any later version.
+
+  This library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
+  but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
+  MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE.  See the GNU
+  Lesser General Public License for more details.
+
+  You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public
+  License along with this library; if not, write to the Free Software
+  Foundation, Inc., 51 Franklin Street, Fifth Floor, Boston, MA  02110-1301  USA
+*/
+#include <cassert>
+#include <random>
+#include <string>
+#include <unordered_set>
+#include <vector>
+
+#include "alpha/double_array2.hpp"
+#include "logger.hpp"
+#include "time.hpp"
+
+void test_basics() {
+  grnxx::io::Pool pool;
+  pool.open(grnxx::io::POOL_TEMPORARY);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2> da(
+      grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2::create(pool));
+
+  std::vector<std::string> keys;
+  keys.push_back("apple");
+  keys.push_back("banana");
+  keys.push_back("strawberry");
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->insert(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->search_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(!da->insert(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(da->remove_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(!da->remove_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(da->insert(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  std::vector<std::string> new_keys;
+  new_keys.push_back("dog");
+  new_keys.push_back("monkey");
+  new_keys.push_back("bird");
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(da->update_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length(),
+                             new_keys[i].c_str(), new_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < keys.size(); ++i) {
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(keys[i].c_str(), keys[i].length()));
+    assert(da->search_by_key(new_keys[i].c_str(), new_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+}
+
+void test_insert() {
+  constexpr std::size_t NUM_KEYS = 1 << 12;
+  constexpr std::size_t MIN_LENGTH = 1;
+  constexpr std::size_t MAX_LENGTH = 10;
+
+  std::mt19937 random;
+
+  grnxx::io::Pool pool;
+  pool.open(grnxx::io::POOL_TEMPORARY);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2> da(
+      grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2::create(pool));
+
+  std::vector<std::string> true_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  std::vector<std::string> false_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  {
+    std::unordered_set<std::string> keys;
+    while (keys.size() < (NUM_KEYS * 2)) {
+      std::string key;
+      key.resize(MIN_LENGTH + (random() % (MAX_LENGTH - MIN_LENGTH + 1)));
+      for (std::size_t j = 0; j < key.length(); ++j) {
+        key[j] = '0' + (random() % 10);
+      }
+      keys.insert(key);
+    }
+    auto it = keys.begin();
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+      true_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+      false_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->insert(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+
+    assert(!da->insert(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+
+    key_id = i + 1;
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(),
+                             &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(),
+                             &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length(),
+                              &key_id));
+  }
+}
+
+void test_remove() {
+  constexpr std::size_t NUM_KEYS = 1 << 12;
+  constexpr std::size_t MIN_LENGTH = 1;
+  constexpr std::size_t MAX_LENGTH = 10;
+
+  std::mt19937 random;
+
+  grnxx::io::Pool pool;
+  pool.open(grnxx::io::POOL_TEMPORARY);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2> da(
+      grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2::create(pool));
+
+  std::vector<std::string> true_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  std::vector<std::string> false_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  {
+    std::unordered_set<std::string> keys;
+    while (keys.size() < (NUM_KEYS * 2)) {
+      std::string key;
+      key.resize(MIN_LENGTH + (random() % (MAX_LENGTH - MIN_LENGTH + 1)));
+      for (std::size_t j = 0; j < key.length(); ++j) {
+        key[j] = '0' + (random() % 10);
+      }
+      keys.insert(key);
+    }
+    auto it = keys.begin();
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+      true_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+      false_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->insert(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i * 2));
+    assert(da->insert(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>((i * 2) + 1));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->remove_by_id((i * 2) + 1));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->insert(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->remove_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+}
+
+void test_update() {
+  constexpr std::size_t NUM_KEYS = 1 << 12;
+  constexpr std::size_t MIN_LENGTH = 1;
+  constexpr std::size_t MAX_LENGTH = 10;
+
+  std::mt19937 random;
+
+  grnxx::io::Pool pool;
+  pool.open(grnxx::io::POOL_TEMPORARY);
+
+  std::unique_ptr<grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2> da(
+      grnxx::alpha::DoubleArray2::create(pool));
+
+  std::vector<std::string> true_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  std::vector<std::string> false_keys(NUM_KEYS);
+  {
+    std::unordered_set<std::string> keys;
+    while (keys.size() < (NUM_KEYS * 2)) {
+      std::string key;
+      key.resize(MIN_LENGTH + (random() % (MAX_LENGTH - MIN_LENGTH + 1)));
+      for (std::size_t j = 0; j < key.length(); ++j) {
+        key[j] = '0' + (random() % 10);
+      }
+      keys.insert(key);
+    }
+    auto it = keys.begin();
+    for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+      true_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+      false_keys[i] = *it;
+      ++it;
+    }
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    std::int64_t key_id;
+    assert(da->insert(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(), &key_id));
+    assert(key_id == static_cast<std::int64_t>(i));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(!da->update_by_id(i, true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(da->update_by_id(i, false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(!da->update_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length(),
+                              false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(da->update_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length(),
+                             true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+
+  for (std::size_t i = 0; i < NUM_KEYS; ++i) {
+    assert(da->search_by_key(true_keys[i].c_str(), true_keys[i].length()));
+    assert(!da->search_by_key(false_keys[i].c_str(), false_keys[i].length()));
+  }
+}
+
+int main() {
+  grnxx::Logger::set_flags(grnxx::LOGGER_WITH_ALL |
+                           grnxx::LOGGER_ENABLE_COUT);
+  grnxx::Logger::set_max_level(grnxx::NOTICE_LOGGER);
+
+  test_basics();
+
+  test_insert();
+  test_remove();
+  test_update();
+
+  return 0;
+}
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